For many historians, Mexico’s 20th century truly began in 1910. The new Constitution, proclaimed on February 5, 1917, would shape the nation’s political and social development for the rest of the century. This historic document marked the end of the Mexican Revolution. It gave rise to institutions that implemented sweeping land reforms, expanded access to free, secular education, regulated relations between capital and labor, and provided health and social security for workers and the broader population.

Even with this constitutional foundation, the 20th century was marked by significant social unrest. The Cristero Rebellion, the railroad workers’ movement in the late 1950s, teachers’ and student protests in the 1960s, guerrilla movements in the 1970s and 1980s, and the Zapatista uprising in the 1990s—all reflected the voices of people demanding change.

Peaceful movements also gained ground, as civil society organizations (NGOs) championed causes such as environmental protection and human rights. The long dominance of a single political party (1929–2000) sparked a new wave of civic engagement that ultimately led to democratic electoral change in 2000.

The Revolutionary Convention relocated from Mexico City to Aguascalientes but was rejected by Venustiano Carranza, who established his own government in Veracruz. This marked the beginning of the Factional Struggle, which ended with the defeat of the Conventionists—supporters of the Sovereign Revolutionary Convention—backed by leaders like Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata.

In September 1916, Carranza called for elections to form a Constituent Congress, as outlined in the revised Plan of Guadalupe of 1914. Its mission was to reform the 1857 Constitution. The Commission tasked with reviewing Carranza’s proposal included deputies such as Enrique Colunga, Luis G. Monzón, and Francisco J. Múgica, who introduced bolder social reforms to the president’s draft.

The result was the groundbreaking Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, signed on February 5, 1917. Key articles included:

• Article 3: Mandatory, free, and secular education
• Article 27: National ownership of subsoil rights and recognition of communal and ejido lands
• Article 115: Autonomy of local municipalities
• Article 123: Labor rights and regulations for workers
• Article 130: Definition of the relationship between church and state

This Constitution remains in force today.

In 1956, Dr. Eusebio Dávalos Hurtado, then director of the National Institute of Anthropology and History, and historian Antonio Arriaga, director of the National History Museum, commissioned a mural on the Mexican Revolution from David Alfaro Siqueiros. By then, Siqueiros was already a celebrated artist and political activist. Work on the mural began in 1957, and it was scheduled to be inaugurated on November 20, 1960, to commemorate the Revolution’s 50th anniversary.

However, Siqueiros was imprisoned in August 1960 on charges of "social dissolution," delaying the mural’s completion until 1966.

Human beings have always sought beauty, harmony, and visual pleasure in finely crafted objects. Throughout history, we find countless examples of decorative items—jewelry, fans, watches, snuffboxes, match safes, reliquaries, and rosaries—that are true works of art.

Goldsmiths and artisans created exquisite pieces that adorned both people and homes in earlier times. Ancient techniques, such as the Roman art of the cameo, continued to be used for centuries. Precious metals like gold and silver were complemented by diamonds, pearls, emeralds, rubies, amethysts, topazes, and colorful enamels.

In New Spain, gemstones were typically set in silver. Women wore brooches, gem-studded watches, bracelets, and pearl necklaces made with rare oriental pearls, coral, and jet.

Fans came from China, Japan, India, Spain, and other European countries. Local artisans adopted foreign techniques and created jewelry and decorative items of the highest quality.

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the creation of fine decorative arts became increasingly influenced by France, which set the global standard for elegance at the time. The romantic spirit of the 19th century is evident in nature-inspired jewelry, rich in floral motifs, leaves, and landscape scenes.

When the Spanish arrived, governance fell to Hernán Cortés, who ruled as captain general and chief justice. Later, the Spanish Crown attempted to administer New Spain through two successive royal courts, until finally, on April 17, 1535, Don Antonio de Mendoza took office as the first viceroy. The viceregal institution was built on a hierarchy that centralized power in the king, who was assisted by the Council of the Indies—an entity in Spain overseeing legal and judicial matters.

In New Spain, the viceroy represented the monarch directly and held multiple titles: chief administrator, captain general, governor of the Kingdom, president of the Royal Audience, vice-patron of the Church, and superintendent of the Royal Treasury. Beside the viceroy stood the Royal Audience, a court primarily responsible for judicial matters, though it also acted as an advisory body and, in some cases, could substitute for the viceroy. The Audience became so powerful that it could review and overturn government decisions.

Another Audience was established in Guadalajara, while other kingdoms and provinces within the viceroyalty were governed by officials who reported to the viceroy. Under their authority were mayors and magistrates, and at the local level, town councils governed municipalities and small cities.

In earlier times, this space served as the carriage room of the Castle. Today, it also functions as the entrance to the Alcázar and is flanked by two murals by Antonio González Orozco: "Juárez, Symbol of the Republic against the French Intervention" (1972) and "Triumphal Entry of Benito Juárez into the National Palace Accompanied by His Cabinet" (1967).

The room also features two remarkable equestrian portraits: "Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg", painted in 1865 by Juan Antonio Beaucé, and "General Porfirio Díaz", painted in 1901 and signed by José Cusachs.

A hundred years passed between the War of Independence and the beginning of the Mexican Revolution. The 19th century was a difficult period of nation-building for Mexico, during which liberal and progressive ideals took root. Among the many events that marked that century, three stand out: from 1846 to 1848, Mexico lost half of its territory due to the U.S. invasion, which shaped the country’s present-day borders. Later, with Benito Juárez’s victory over Maximilian in 1867, Mexico firmly entered the republican and constitutional path. Finally, the "Porfiriato"—the period from 1876 to 1911 under President Porfirio Díaz—brought international recognition and set in motion the country’s economic modernization.

Throughout these significant events, Chapultepec Castle played a crucial role. During Maximilian of Habsburg’s rule, women wore wide skirts created by layering multiple garments: ankle-length pantaloons, flannel petticoats, knee-length underskirts, and starched overskirts.

Maximilian at Miravalle: Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph was the second son of Prince Franz Karl, himself the son of Francis, Emperor of Austria. As a member of the House of Habsburg, Maximilian was raised under the family motto: "Austria est imperare orbi universo" (Austria will rule the entire world.) In his youth, he served as a naval officer and was later appointed Governor-General of Lombardy and Venice. In the port city of Trieste, Maximilian built his dream castle, which he named Miramare.

Upon discovering Chapultepec, he chose to name his new residence "Miravalle." On its terraces, he would read and write, whether drafting decrees and official documents or corresponding both formally and personally.

This space in earlier times...
• Observatory • Second Astronomer’s Room • 1877
• Presidential Residence (Manuel González) • Billiards Room • 1882
• Presidential Residence (Porfirio Díaz) • Billiards Room • 1906
• Presidential Residence (Abelardo Rodríguez) • Billiards • 1932

Leisure hours: Beyond matters of state, the residents of the palace also sought moments of recreation and amusement. At the Alcázar, rulers passed the time playing bowling or billiards, or enjoying a game of cards or chess with their guests. The tapestries adorning the room depict people engaged in playing with a spinning top, a cup-and-ball toy, badminton, and bowling. They were made in France and gifted to Emperor Maximilian by Napoleon III on the occasion of his birthday, celebrated on July 6.

This space in earlier times:

• Observatory • Second astronomer's room • 1877
• Presidential Residence (Manuel González) • Parlor for cards • 1882
• Presidential Residence (Porfirio Díaz) • Game room • 1906
• Presidential Residence (Abelardo Rodríguez) • Game room • 1932

After-dinner gatherings: This room, furnished and decorated with pieces from China, Japan, and the Dutch East India Company, offered a setting where the scent of tobacco and the spirit of liquor created a relaxed atmosphere for discussing the matters occupying the minds of presidential guests. After sharing a plentiful meal, while the women withdrew to discuss domestic issues and social news, the men would typically gather here to talk business and matters of state.

This space in earlier times:

• Observatory • Second astronomer's room • 1877
• Presidential Residence (Manuel González) • Smoking room • 1882
• Presidential Residence (Porfirio Díaz) • Smoking lounge • 1906
• Presidential Residence (Abelardo Rodríguez) • Smoking room • 1932

The ruler at the table: Sharing a meal is a gesture of inclusion in the family circle, and important moments in a person's life are often celebrated with intimate yet festive banquets. Presiding over the table, the ruler demonstrated generosity and reinforced his role as head of the family. The fireplace and sideboards in this dining room—crafted in cedar, mahogany, metal, and marble—were made by artist Pedro Télez Toledo at the request of President Porfirio Díaz, who also commissioned sculptor Epitacio Calvo to decorate the space. The furniture is crowned with the monogram of the Mexican Republic. On display are pieces from Maximilian’s Christofle silver dining set, as well as glassware that belonged to Porfirio Díaz.

This space in earlier times:

• Observatory • Second astronomer's room • 1877
• Presidential Residence (Manuel González) • Dining room • 1882
• Presidential Residence (Porfirio Díaz) • Dining room • 1906
• Presidential Residence (Abelardo Rodríguez) • Dining room • 1932

The kitchens and service areas were located in the basement of this wing.

Nostalgia for Europe: By evoking family traditions, the noble homes of Europe affirmed their lineage and enriched their interiors with fine art and elegant design. In this room, portraits of Maximilian and Carlota painted by Albert Graefle in 1865 are accompanied by those of French monarchs Napoleon III and his wife Eugénie de Montijo, who acted as their mentors. Napoleon III gifted Maximilian this Louis XV–style hazelnut wood sitting room, with gobelin tapestries from Aubusson illustrating scenes from the fables of Jean de La Fontaine. The two pianos—one French, one English—belonged to Maximilian and Carlota.

This space in earlier times:

• Residence of Maximilian • Staff rooms and wardrobe • 1866
• Observatory • Director’s room • 1877
• Presidential Residence (Manuel González) • Housekeeper’s room • 1882
• Presidential Residence (Porfirio Díaz) • Ground floor room • 1906